Highlights in Science in 2013

1. Exoplanets

• A study by Caltech astronomers reported that the Milky Way Galaxy contains at least one planet per star, resulting in approximately 100–400 billion exoplanets. 
• Astronomers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) reported that "at least 17 billion" Earth-sized exoplanets are estimated to reside in the Milky Way Galaxy.
• Astronomers affiliated with the Kepler space observatory announced the discovery of KOI-172.02, an Earth-like exoplanet candidate which orbits a star similar to the Sun in the habitable zone, and is possibly a "prime candidate to host alien life".
• NASA reports the discovery of Kepler-37b, the smallest exoplanet yet known, around the size of Earth's Moon.
• NASA announces the discovery of three new Earthlike exoplanets – Kepler-62e, Kepler-62f, and Kepler-69c – in the habitable zones of their respective host stars, Kepler-62 and Kepler-69. The new exoplanets, which are considered prime candidates for possessing liquid water and thus potentially life, were identified using the Kepler spacecraft.
• For the first time, astronomers determined the true colour of a distant exoplanet. HD 189733 b, a searing-hot gas giant, is said to be a vivid blue colour, most likely due to clouds of silica in its atmosphere.
• Astronomers have discovered the 1,000th known exoplanet.
• The Hubble Space Telescope has found evidence of water in the atmospheres of five distant exoplanets: HD 209458b, XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b and WASP-19b.

2. Cancer and its Therapy

• January - Medical researchers state that sickle cells can be induced to attack treatment-resistant tumours by starving them of blood.
• February - Medical researchers developed a new method of efficiently detecting cancer using bioelectric signals. In addition, they were able to manipulate cellular electric charge levels to prevent certain cells from developing cancer.
• A genetically engineered strain of the vaccinia virus was found to triple the average survival time of patients suffering from a severe form of liver cancer.
• March - Chinese and Israeli scientists developed a Breathalyzer-style breath test that can quickly and easily diagnose stomach cancer by analyzing exhaled chemicals, without the need for an intrusive endoscopy.
• Scientists announced they can now illuminate up to 100 biomarkers, ten times more than the previous standard. This breakthrough may make it much easier to spot proteins in cancer cells – a vital diagnostic technique
• Scientists discovered mutations in 26 genes that are believed to be responsible for oesophageal cancer, a breakthrough that could lead to new drug treatments for the disease.
• April - British researchers discovered that a mutation of the gene BRCA2 increases both the risk and severity of prostate cancer in men, as well as being linked to hereditary breast cancer in women.
• June - American researchers identified a key embryonic protein that, though usually deactivated shortly after birth, is reactivated in patients with advanced cancer. This breakthrough may allow for better treatment of advanced cancer cases, which typically respond poorly to currently available therapies. As a result of this discovery, scientists may be able to determine from the structure of the protein the fundamental process through which cancer cells seek out new tumor sites and create secondary tumors after leaving the primary tumor site.
• July - British medical researchers created an "intelligent" surgical knife with a built-in mass spectrometer that can detect cancerous tissue during operations, allowing surgeons to more accurately and effectively excise tumors without damaging healthy tissue

3. 3D Printing

• January – The first museum of 3D-printed artifacts opens in China.
• January – Architects begin preparations for constructing the world's first 3D-printed building. The building will be constructed of a high-strength artificial marble laid down by an industrial-scale 3D printer, and is planned for completion in 2014.
• February - Scientists at Scotland's Heriot-Watt University develop a 3D printer that can produce clusters of living stem cells, potentially allowing complete organs to be printed on demand in future.
• In a series of separate developments, American and Japanese engineers create 3D printers that can produce edible meals with a range of flavours and textures on demand. These could both replace conventional ready meals and allow astronauts to enjoy a far more varied diet.
• Cornell University scientists use a 3D printer to create a living artificial ear from collagen and ear cell cultures. In future, such ears could be grown to order for patients suffering from ear trauma or amputation.
• March - In a world first, researchers replace 75 percent of an injured patient's skull with a precision 3D-printed polymer replacement implant. In future, damaged bones may routinely be replaced with custom-manufactured implants.
• June- American scientists use 3D printing to manufacture a new class of microscopic batteries, which may allow the easy production of extremely small medical devices, nanorobots and communications systems.
• July - North Carolina State University researchers demonstrate a method of 3D printing liquid metal at room temperature, forming freestanding structures which maintain their shape despite initially remaining liquid. The invention, which uses an alloy of gallium and indium, could allow electronic circuitry and even flexible wiring to be printed on demand.
• NASA engineers successfully test a rocket engine with a fully 3D-printed injector, proving that critical rocket components can be produced through 3D printing without compromising their effectiveness.

4.Meteor and Meteorites

• January - Scientists analysed a meteorite, NWA 7034, that was found in the Sahara Desert and purchased in Morocco in 2011, and report that it is a new type of Mars rock with an unusually high water content.
• February - A 10-ton meteoroid impacts in Chelyabinsk, Russia, producing a powerful shockwave and injuring over 1,000 people.
• March - At the 44th annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, scientists announce the discovery of the first known meteorite to originate from Mercury. The green rock, known as NWA 7325, is thought to be 4.56 billion years old.
• May - Researches find fragments of meteorites in pieces of ancient Egyptian jewellery, which were discovered in a cemetery dating back to roughly 3,300 BC near Cairo in 1911
• October- Russian authorities raised a large fragment, 654 kg (1,440 lb) total weight, of the Chelyabinsk meteor, a Near-Earth asteroid that entered Earth's atmosphere over Russia on 15 February 2013, from the bottom of Chebarkul lake.

5. Global Warming

• February – Data gathered from Siberian ice caves reveals that continued global warming may lead to widespread thawing of permafrost, potentially releasing massive volumes of trapped carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere
• Scientists from Oregon State University reconstruct the global temperature record since the end of the last Ice Age. Their data, taken from 73 sites around the world, shows a clear and rapid warming trend in the 20th and early 21st centuries.
• The American Meteorological Society releases its peer-reviewed State of the Climate report, showing how the impacts of global warming are worsening.
• August - Cooling waters in the tropical Pacific Ocean appear to be a major factor in dampening global warming in recent years, scientists say.
• September - Long-term data shows that the Greenland Sea is warming 10 times faster than the global ocean.
• The first document from the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report – Working Group I's summary for policymakers – is released. It states that warming of the global climate system is "unequivocal", with a 95% probability that humans are the main cause.
• October – A new study adds weight to the idea that the oceans have absorbed some of the excess heat from recent global warming.
• November - Even if CO2 emissions stop, global warming will continue for centuries, according to a study by Princeton University.

6. Higgs-Boson

• The Scottish Government announces plans for a national physics prize named in honour of Peter Higgs, who first theorized the Higgs boson in 1964.
• February – Studies of a recently discovered Higgs boson-like particle suggest that the universe may end in a false vacuum collapse billions of years from now.
• March - CERN scientists confirm, with a very high degree of certainty, that a new particle identified by the Large Hadron Collider in July 2012 is the long-sought Higgs boson.
• October - The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to François Englert and Peter Higgs "for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles, and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider".

7.New technologies & Treatments

• January - British researchers successfully cure blindness in mice using an injection of photosensitive cells which could be used to heal human sufferers of retinitis pigmentosa.
• A gamma secretase inhibitor previously experimented for treating Alzheimer's disease is found to have regenerative effects on inner ear hair cells, potentially allowing for the effective treatment of deafness.
• Medical researchers state that sickle cells can be induced to attack treatment-resistant tumours by starving them of blood.
• Bolivian scientists restore brain function to stroke-affected rats by injecting them with stem cells. This breakthrough may lead to more effective treatments for human stroke sufferers.
• February - American researchers develop a new molecular therapy which can cross the blood-brain barrier to deliver medicines to the brain, potentially helping to treat neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease.
• New York researchers successfully cure leukodystrophy in mice by using skin cells to repair damaged myelin sheaths. This treatment may also prove effective in curing human multiple sclerosis.
• June - A new treatment to "reset" the immune system of multiple sclerosis patients is reported to reduce their reactivity to myelin by 50 to 75 percent.
• July - Bone marrow transplants are found to remove all traces of HIV from two test patients, in conjunction with antiretroviral treatments.

8. Glaciers

• French glaciologists release a report stating that the glaciers of the Andes are melting at an unprecedented rate.
• May - New evidence suggests that Mount Everest's glaciers are melting.
• Four-hundred-year-old bryophyte specimens left behind by retreating glaciers in Canada are brought back to life in the laboratory.

9.  Graphene

• Stanford University physicists discover that atom-thin sheets of graphene are 100 times more chemically reactive than thicker sheets. This reactivity may be crucial to developing new practical applications for graphene, which is already widely known for its immense strength and conductivity.
• Researchers discover that boron nitride – a nanomaterial also known as "white graphene" – is highly effective at removing harmful chemicals from polluted water, and could be used to clean up future oil spills.
• May – The first graphene-based circuits to break the gigahertz barrier are created by researchers in the US and Italy.
• Researchers at Nanyang Technological University invent a graphene-based sensor that is 1,000 times more sensitive to light than traditional CMOS or CCD sensors.
• Researchers in Germany have taken a major step towards using graphene in solar cells, which could boost their efficiency. The material was found to retain its properties even when coated with silicon.

10. Hi-tech Robots

• The British Army begins using a miniature drone helicopter in Afghanistan. The aerial surveillance robot weighs just 16 grams, and can be remotely piloted into difficult terrain to detect hidden enemy positions.
• March – Boston Dynamics demonstrates an updated version of its BigDog military robot, a mule-sized heavy-lifting robot able to navigate rough terrain and equipped with an arm powerful enough to easily lift and throw breeze blocks.
• Roboticists launch an online database and cloud computing platform which can be accessed by robots worldwide, allowing them to more easily recognise unfamiliar objects and perform intensive computing tasks.
• Scientists create a robotic ant colony that behaves like a real one. The tiny machines can be programmed to avoid obstacles and find the quickest route through a network or maze.
• A British engineer unveils a giant "mantis" robot, large enough to carry a human pilot, which is supported by multiple hydraulic legs. The robot has reportedly attracted the interest of mining and marine research companies.
• IBM develops a robot which combines telepresence and augmented reality technologies to assist engineers working on complex projects in remote areas.
• May – Harvard scientists unveil RoboBee, a miniature robot with the smallest ever man-made wings capable of flight.
• Engineers demonstrate a small quadrupedal "cheetah-cub" robot, with speed and agility approaching that of a real cat. The prototype is intended as the basis for future search-and-rescue robots with vastly greater speed and agility than human emergency workers.
• DARPA and Boston Dynamics unveil the Atlas humanoid robot, a 6-foot (1.8 m) autonomous machine capable of a wide variety of military and disaster-response operations.

Let's see what more 2014 unveils for all science-o-maniacs! Have a Sciency New Year!

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NASA and Google join hands to grow Turnip on Moon

As the man's desire increases, technology is born! Well, we haven't been able to create a habitable environment for humans on Moon but we have started testing the conditions on Moon for habitable conditions by growing plants there. Growing plants is a vital step toward sustainability in a new environment. Aside from the obvious life support that vegetation would provide — air, food, and water — it would also provide another integral aspect to a habitable lunar environment. 

A statement from the office of the chief technologist at NASA Ames Research Centre said, "Plants react to aspects of a harsh environment similarly to humans, as their genetic material can be damaged by radiation. A relatively safe way to test long-term lunar exposure is to send some plants up there and monitor their health. NASA likens this to being like sending a canary into a coal mine."

Rather than making the trip and dropping the plants off itself, NASA plans to use commercial spaceflight as the vehicle by which the plants will be sent up to the moon. NASA is constructing a small, lightweight (a little over two pounds), self-sustaining habitat for the vegetation which will be delivered to the moon via the Moon Express, a lunar lander that’s part of the Google Lunar X Prize, a competition to create a robotic spacecraft that can fly to and land on the moon. 

This type of collaboration between NASA and Google for sending the habitat on Moon has shown a new way of conducting projects by minimizing costs. If it wasn't for the Google's competition, NASA would have to  spend a large amount of money on sending a mission specifically for the purpose of delivering the habitat.

Once the lander arrives on the moon, water will be added to basil, turnip, and Arabidopsis (a small flowering plant) seeds kept in the habitat, then monitored for five to 10 days and compared to controls back on Earth. NASA will also monitor the actual habitat itself, looking toward its scalability since a two-pound habitat won’t support human life. Currently, the chamber can support 10 basil seeds, 10 turnip seeds, and around 100 Arabidopsis seeds. It also holds the bit of water that initiates the germination process, and uses the natural sunlight that reaches the moon to support the plant life.

In order to study the quality of the plant growth and movement, the habitat will take images and beam them back home which will be compared with the controls at the Earth. NASA has taken an initiative to curb costs in this as well - samples of control will be distributed in schools where students will monitor the growth of the samples - thus, collecting data on a large number of control without running them themselves and also letting youth to be a part of such an innovation.

Following the Lunar Growth experiment NASA said it would send further experiments to see how plants survive through the lunar night and even would breed plants on the Moon. It said: “Survival to 14 days demonstrates plants can sprout in the Moon’s radiation environment at 1/6 g. Survival to 60 days demonstrates that sexual reproduction can occur in a lunar environment. Survival to 180 days shows effects of radiation on dominant and recessive genetic traits. Afterwards, the experiment may run for months through multiple generations, increasing science return.”

With NASA growing Lunar Salad and Mars One sending people on Mars, our kids will be visiting relatives on another planet for vacations! ;)

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The Tree Circus

 

Axel Erlandson (December 15, 1884 – April 28, 1964) was a Swedish American farmer who shaped trees as a hobby, and opened a horticultural attraction in 1947 advertised as "See the World's Strangest Trees Here," and named "The Tree Circus". He was an unusual farmer who made trees grow to whatever design he desired. 

This bizarre variety of tree shapes were unrealistically woven to form miniature resemblances of statues. In 1985, after the Tree Circus went out of business the trees were bought by millionaire Michael Bonfante and were transplanted in his amusement park Gilroy Gardens in Gilroy, California.

The trees appeared in the column of Robert Ripley's Believe It or Not! twelve times.

 

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Baby Massage Oil - Ayurvedic or Synthetic?

When it comes to a baby, every mother wants the best for it - be it a food product, daily care products or even a beauty product for their little angels! But here comes the tough part- how to know which product is the best? There are thousands of brands available in the market for each product with another thousand options with different combinations as per the need. Another problem arises when people have to choose - ayurvedic or synthetic?

We have all seen our grandmothers using traditional methods for the children for ages so it must be good for the babies with least/no side effects but then a thought always comes to my mind - the modern technologies seem so promising in every field coming up with techniques and products to cure even the most dangerous of diseases. So maybe they will have products with better benefits for the children. All this confusion made me analyse the different products based on their synthetic and natural composition. Here's what I found:

Ayurveda and Baby-care?

Ayurveda has a branch specially designed for babycare - Kaumarbharitya.  Kaumarbharitya, a compound sanskrit word - "Kaumar" means balak (child), "bhritya" means care (palan poshan). "Palan" means 'to cradle, to encourage, to protect' and "poshan" means 'to nourish, to cherish, to assist’. It describes the treatment of the diseases of the children and their nursing - the method of the correct nourishment and bring up of children. The concept of child-care in Ayurveda is ‘complete or ‘all-encompassing’, taking into account all elements that could potentially impact a child’s health. Ayurvedic texts outline health measures starting from pre-conception, antenatal care for the mother and fetus, right through to childbirth, baby’s growth and development until adolescence.

As a primarily botanical healing system, Ayurveda recommends the use of herbs and herbal compositions for various health conditions. For example, the combination of Thyme-Leaved Gatriola (Brahmi), Calamus (Vacha) and Bindweed (Shankhapushpi) with Honey and Ghee improves overall immunity and intelligence in children. 

Baby Oils

Massage plays an important role in the growth and development of baby's body. Oil massage benefits to the newborn are those related to the oil application and those related to tactile kinesthetic stimulation due to the massage. Topical oil application has been shown to improve the skin barrier function, thermoregulation and also is suggested to have a positive effect on growth. Massage makes baby's bones strong and develops healthy body. It also helps baby to have a sound sleep and remain active and cheerful. Massage with oil improves weight gain by better thermoregulation. Transcutaneous absorption is also a possible mechanism.

The common protocol involves moderate pressure stroking causing tactile stimulation and flexion and extension of the upper and lower extremities constituting kinesthetic stimulation with variable sessions of 10 and 15 min.

I tried to analyse different types of natural and synthetic baby massage oils for their benefits in terms of growth & development and side effects. 

Different Types of Massage Oils

1. Natural or ayurvedic oils

• Coconut oil - Coconut oil is considered to be the finest oil for massaging your baby. It is widely used in southern parts of India for baby's massage. It contains antibacterial and antiseptic properties which help to prevent skin infections caused to baby's skin. 
• Almond oil - Almond oil is also known as 'Badam Tel' in India. It contains vitamin E in higher proportion as compared to coconut oil. It is very good for skin of your baby. Using almond oil for massage ensures glowing and soft skin. 
• Mustard oil - Mustard oil is used on a large scale in Northern parts of India. People also attach a lot of traditional values to this oil. It is also used for massaging babies in these parts of India. Mustard oil is good to be used during winters. Mustard oil is edible oil and it is used in many food items in Northern part of India. Mustard oil is good for hair as well as it is beneficial for preventing skin infections. 
• Pure Ghee - Pure ghee is also used for massaging babies. However, it is not used on very large scale. Massaging body with ghee helps to protect body from cold. It is used especially during winters when the climate is too cold. 
• Olive oil - Olive oil is used mainly in Western countries. However, it is available and used in India also. You can prefer olive oils specially packed for massaging babies.

Some experts recommend using a vegetable or plant oil. They absorb quickly and digest easily if your baby sucks his oil-smeared thumb. If you're using a vegetable oil, cold pressed, unrefined oils are best suited for massage. However, there are some oils or creams that it's best not to use, because they may irritate your baby's skin. These are: 

• Mustard oil, because the way it's processed may mean it is contaminated with other seeds
• Peanut oil, because, unless it's refined, the proteins it contains may trigger an allergic reaction on your baby's skin. It's hard to find pure, refined peanut oil.

Vegetable oils that are high in linoleic acid may be kinder to your baby's skin. Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid that helps to protect the barrier element of your baby's skin. Vegetable oils that usually contain high levels of linoleic acid include: safflower oil and grapeseed oil

2. Mineral or petroleum oils

There are lots of brands which are selling synthetic mineral and petroleum oils which I will not name here. Some people prefer these branded mineral based baby massage oils as they can help to seal and trap moisture. However these oils may clog pores as they don't penetrate the skin as easily. Clogged pores can lead to skin infections. And thus, in my opinion, these shouldn't be used for babies.

My conclusion:

Based on a study, "Oil massage in babies: Indian perspectives", my conclusion for oil massage oil is as follows. Oil massage is a healthy and scientifically proven process which not only benefits the skin but also the growth and bonding of the baby. But improper technique or oil may be detrimental. So educating the mother in proper technique  is recommended. 

Coconut oil is a good choice in the hot summer months. It is easily available and has a cooling effect on the body. Similarly, sesame oil (til ka tel) is a popular alternative in many regions. Although olive oil and almond oil are more expensive than vegetable oils, they work well in hot or cold weather. Mustard oil is preferred for giving massages in cold weather as it warms the body. In the northern and eastern parts of the country, mustard oil (sarson ka tel) is heated with a few garlic cloves and fenugreek (methi) seeds. Garlic has antiviral and antibacterial properties, and is believed to boost the immune system. Fenugreek is also known to relax the body.

Ayurveda suggests that you shouldn't put anything on your skin that isn't good enough to eat! 

I agree with this a lot as children tend to lick or chew on their own body parts and any synthetic product is not eatable! Also as the study on Dabur Lal Tail demonstrated, the ayurvedic tails lead to double the growth rate - physical and behavioural - in babies as compared to synthetic ones! So I would recommend natural/ayurvedic products for the oil massage for kids! Here is an Ayurvedic description of four ayurvedic massage oils.

1. Sesame oil is the most classical Ayurvedic massage oil, particularly black sesame if you have access to it. It is the only oil to penetrate all seven tissues. It's hot and heavy qualities are very grounding and nourishing, but may be imbalancing if Kapha or Pitta is high.
2. Olive oil is one of my favourites because very high quality olive oil is so readily available. It is not as heavy as sesame oil and is cooling, so very useful for babies with any kind of hot red rash. Allergy is very rare.
3. Sunflower oil is a light, cool oil that suits all Ayurvedic constitutions. It is not as rich and nourishing but it is high in essential fatty acids and Vit E. It is most useful for a Kapha baby.
4. Dabur Lal Tail is an ayurvedic tail which contains til, shankhpushpi and ratanjyot (for prevent skin diseases), camphor (for maintaining proper blood flow in all body parts),  and urad (for preventing drying up of skin and strengthening the muscles).

Tips for oil massages:
Below are some of the tips while giving oil massage to babies:

• Use gentle, upward strokes when massaging your baby. Despite popular belief, there is no proof to suggest that applying pressure on your baby's head will make it round.
• Remove any bangles and rings that you may be wearing. They could hurt your baby.
• Steer clear of areas where your baby received his vaccine injection.
• Wash off the oil well while giving your baby a bath. Many babies develop skin rashes, especially during hot and humid weather, due to the residual massage oil.

This post is a part of Traditional Knowledge, Traditional Growth contest by Dabur Lal Tail and Indiblogger.

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Three suns shone over China: Illusion or magic?

Sundogs in Fargo, North Dakota. Taken February 18th, 2009

On 1st November 2013, friday, three suns shone over the inner region of Mongolia in northern China. Well, contrary to the rumours, it was neither indications of doomsday nor magic. It was an atmospheric phenomenon known as "Phantom Sun" or "Sun dog". Its scientific name is Parhelion which means beside the sun.

It is an atmospheric phenomenon that creates bright spots of light in the sky, often on a luminous ring or halo on either side of the sun. Sundogs may appear as a colored patch of light to the left or right of the sun, 22° distant and at the same distance above the horizon as the sun, and in ice halos. 

How do they look?

Here's a video of the sun dogs observed in Mangolia on Friday.

How are they formed?

Phantom suns are commonly made by the refraction of light from hexagonal ice crystals (which are present in the high and cold cirrus clouds) which drift in the air at low levels. These crystals act as prisms, bending the light rays passing through them with a minimum deflection of 22°. If the crystals are randomly oriented, a complete ring around the sun is seen — a halo (as seen in the image below).

But often, as the crystals sink through the air, they become vertically aligned, so sunlight is refracted horizontally — in this case, sundogs are seen.

As the sun rises higher, the rays passing through the crystals are increasingly skewed from the horizontal plane. Their angle of deviation increases, and the sundogs move further from the sun. However, they always stay at the same elevation as the sun.

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Projection of Climate Departure: Assessing Climate Change

Scientists at University of Hawai have projected the timing of climate departure from the present variabilities. First of all, let me explain to you what this means. The climate is changing at a very slow pace , thus the changes in ecological and social parameters due to climate change are extremely less when considered for a small time scale. However, when viewed at a large time scale, they appear to have changed a lot as does the climate. So, the scientists have tried to project/predict the time period till which the climate will change to such extremes which has not occurred in last 145 years. 

They presented an index for the time when the projected mean climate of a given location moves to a state continuously outside the bounds of historical variability under alternative greenhouse gas emissions scenarios. The historical variabilities they have considered in this study are from 1860 to 2005. So, the temperature conditions being assessed for a city when it hits the "climate departure" are such that the average temperature of the city's coolest year from then on is projected to be warmer than the average temperature of its hottest year between 1860 and 2005. 

This index has a global mean of 2069 (±18 years s.d.) for near-surface air temperature under an emissions stabilization scenario and 2047 (±14 years s.d.) under a ‘business-as-usual’ scenario. This means that if we stabilize the emissions, the climate departure for near-surface air temperature will occur in 2069, that is, 56 years from now (solid blue line in fig c); and in the case of continuing emissions at our present rate (which will increase with time) with no additional boundations on emissions, the climate departure will occur in 2047, that is, 34 years from now (solid red line in fig c).

a, b, Projected year when annual (a) or monthly (b) air temperature means move to a state continuously outside annual or monthly historical bounds, respectively.c, Absolute change in mean annual air temperature. (Results in a–c are based on RCP85.) d, Cumulative frequency of 100-km grid cells according to the projected timing of climate departure from recent variability for air temperature under two emissions scenarios (vertical lines indicate the median year). e, Scatter plot relating the grid cells from the map of absolute change (c) to the same grid cells from the map of projected timing of climate departure (a).
Source: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v502/n7470/full/nature12540.html

They also found out that the unprecedented climates will occur earliest in the tropics and among low-income countries, highlighting the vulnerability of global biodiversity and the limited governmental capacity to respond to the impacts of climate change. The study states, "The fact that the earliest climate departures occur in low-income countries further highlights an obvious disparity between those who benefit economically from the processes leading to climate change and those who will have to pay for most of the environmental and social costs."

They also emphasised on the emission control measures required by the developed countries as, "This suggests that any progress to decrease the rate of ongoing climate change will require a bigger commitment from developed countries to decrease their emissions but will also require more extensive funding of social and conservation programmes in developing countries to minimize the impacts of climate change."

Their study is of significance in terms of the urgency of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions if widespread changes in global biodiversity and human societies are to be prevented. 

Following is the image representing the year of climate departure of various cities for both emissions control measures scenario and business-as-usual scenario.

Climate Departure with carbon dioxide mitigation
Source: The Washington Post

Climate Departure without carbon dioxide mitigation
Source: The Washington Post

One of our Indian cities, Mumbai, as predicted will have a climate departure in 2034 (approx 20 years from now) without carbon dioxide emissions mitigation and 2051 with mitigation.

The study can be accessed here: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v502/n7470/full/nature12540.html

Journal: http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html

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Science Fact - 19

The body of Jeremy Bentham is stuffed with hay and preserved at the University of London since 1832. 

Jeremy Bentham (15 February 1748 – 6 June 1832) was a British philosopher, jurist, social reformer and the founder of modern utilitarianism. 

Bentham died on 6 June 1832 the age of 84 at his residence in Queen Square Place in Westminster, London. He had continued to write up to a month before his death, and had made careful preparations for the dissection of his body after death and its preservation as an auto-icon. As early as 1769, when Bentham was just twenty-one years old, he made a will leaving his body for dissection to a family friend, the physician and chemist George Fordyce. A paper written in 1830, instructing Thomas Southwood Smith to create the auto-icon, was attached to his last will, dated 30 May 1832.

Afterward, the skeleton and head were preserved and stored in a wooden cabinet called the "Auto-icon", with the skeleton padded out with hay and dressed in Bentham's clothes. Originally kept by his disciple Thomas Southwood Smith, it was acquired by University College London in 1850. It is normally kept on public display at the end of the South Cloisters in the main building of the college; however, for the 100th and 150th anniversaries of the college, and in 2013, it was brought to the meeting of the College Council, where it was listed as "present but not voting".

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Solar Flip

Our Sun is about to flip! Yeah that's right but it doesn't mean that we need to flip out! The magnetic poles of the Sun are about to flip, that is, the North pole will become the South pole and vice versa. According to scientists at the Wilcox Solar Observatory at Stanford University , the Sun could be barely two to three months away from this magnetic field reversal. 

What does it mean?

The solar dynamo is the physical process that generates the Sun's magnetic field. The Sun is permeated by an overall dipole magnetic field, as are many other celestial bodies such as the Earth. It means that just like our earth has a magnetic field and thus, North and South poles, in a similar way Sun also has a giant magnet inside it with North and South poles. So we can think of the sun as a large N-S magnet, like our Earth, but with smaller variously oriented and continually evolving mini-magnets distributed over its photosphere (visible surface) and throughout its corona (extended atmosphere).

How does it flip?

Solar magnetic reversals occur close to solar maximum, when the number of sunspots is near its peak, though it is often a gradual process, taking up to 18 months. Indeed, as is the case now, one pole often lags the other by some months. Currently, the sun has two positive magnetic poles! "The sun's north pole has already changed sign, while the south pole is racing to catch up," says Scherrer. "Soon, however, both poles will be reversed, and the second half of Solar Max will be underway."

The reversal will probably be complete within the next one or two months. It happens at the peak of each solar cycle as the sun's inner magnetic dynamo re-organizes itself. The coming reversal will mark the midpoint of Solar Cycle 24. Half of 'Solar Max' will be behind us, with half yet to come.

The Sun's large scale magnetic field flips over on a regular basis, roughly every 11 years. Actually, Earth's flips too, very irregularly. The last time was 780,000 years ago. (PhysOrg)

Will it affect us?

Dibyendu Nandi, an astrophysicist at Kolkata's Indian Institute of Science Education and Research said, "The weather in space is expected to be most hazardous in the next few months as the flip begins to take place. The chances of solar magnetic storms occurring are also high. These storms carry a vast amount of charged particles and magnetic fields through interplanetary space and can pose a threat to satellite operations , telecommunications , air traffic on polar routes and power grids in countries at high latitudes". 

Scientists are watching the event closely to fully understand the changes that take place. It's also of special interest because the current solar cycle — the 24th since 1755, when sunspot activity began to be recorded — is one of the weakest in 100 years. A strong solar magnetic field also acts as a shield against cosmic rays coming from outer space. "Due to the current weak cycle, we have been recording high cosmic ray influx since 2009," said B N Dwivedi of IIT-BHU.

What we need to know is whether this flip leads to change in earth's magnetic field or not! Because that might lead to a lot of changes in our geographical  and climatic features.

Isha Khanna

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Science fact - 18

The last sunday of September is celebrated as the World Heart's Day!

On this World Heart's Day, here are some crazy facts about your heart:

1. The size of an adult's heart is equal to two fists whereas of a kid's heart is equal to one fist.
2. The average adult heart beats 72 times a minute; 100,000 times a day; 3,600,000 times a year; and 2.5 billion times during a lifetime.
3. Though weighing only 11 ounces on average, a healthy heart pumps 2,000 gallons of blood through 60,000 miles of blood vessels each day. 
4. It pumps about 1 million barrels of blood during a lifetime- enough to fill more than 3 super tankers
5. A kitchen faucet would need to be turned on all the way for at least 45 years to equal the amount of blood pumped by the heart in an average lifetime
6. Every day, the heart creates enough energy to drive a truck 20 miles. In a lifetime, that is equivalent to driving to the moon and back.

7. A newborn baby has about one cup of blood in circulation. An adult human has about four to five quarts which the heart pumps to all the tissues and to and from the lungs in about one minute while beating 75 times

8. The term “heartfelt” originated from Aristotle’s philosophy that the heart collected sensory input from the peripheral organs through the blood vessels. It was from those perceptions that thought and emotions arose.

9. In 1929, German surgeon Werner Forssmann (1904-1979) examined the inside of his own heart by threading a catheter into his arm vein and pushing it 20 inches and into his heart, inventing cardiac catheterization, a now common procedure.

10. “Atrium” is Latin for “entrance hall,” and “ventricle” is Latin for “little belly.”

11. The right atrium holds about 3.5 tablespoons of blood. The right ventricle holds slightly more than a quarter cup of blood. The left atrium holds the same amount of blood as the right, but its walls are three times thicker.

12. Grab a tennis ball and squeeze it tightly: that’s how hard the beating heart works to pump blood.

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Science fact - 17

Never Ending Battery

For over 170 years, the Oxford Electric Bell (also known as the Clarendon Dry Pile) has been chiming almost continuously, the composition of its power source uncertain. 

The Oxford Electric Bell is an experimental electric bell that was set up in 1840 and which has run almost continuously ever since, apart from occasional short interruptions caused by high humidity. It was "one of the first pieces" purchased for a collection of apparatus by clergyman and physicist Robert Walker. It is usually located in the foyer of the Clarendon Laboratory at the University of Oxford, England, but as of December 2009 it has been moved into an adjacent corridor due to construction work, and is still ringing, though inaudibly, because it is behind two layers of glass.

The Design:

The experiment consists of two brass bells, each positioned beneath a dry pile (a form of battery), the pair of piles connected in series. A metal sphere approximately 4 mm in diameter is suspended between the piles, and rings the bells by means of electrostatic force. As the clapper touches one bell, it is charged by one pile, and then electrostatically repelled, being attracted to the other bell. On hitting the other bell, the process repeats. The use of electrostatic forces means that while high voltage is required to create motion, only a tiny amount of charge is carried from one bell to the other, which is why the piles have been able to last since the apparatus was set up. Its oscillation frequency is 2 hertz.

What is most interesting, and mysterious, about the apparatus is the internal composition of the 'dry pile' batteries. It is known that they have been coated with molten sulphur to prevent effects from atmospheric moisture and it is thought that they may be Zamboni piles.

At one point this sort of device played an important role in distinguishing between two different theories of electrical action: the theory of contact tension (an obsolete scientific theory based on then-prevailing electrostatic principles) and the theory of chemical action. The Oxford Electric Bell does not demonstrate perpetual motion. The bell will eventually stop when the dry piles are depleted of charge – that is, if the clapper does not wear out first.

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Science Fact - 16

September 22 is globally celebrated as the World Rhino Day in appreciation of the 5 rhino species - Black Rhino, White Rhino, Indian Rhino, Javan Rhino and Sumatran Rhino. Three of these - Black Rhino, Javan Rhino and Sumatran Rhino - are critically endangered.

Some facts about Rhinos:

• The name rhinoceros comes from the Greek words rhino (nose) and ceros (horn).  

• Rhinos have existed on earth for more than 50 million years.  - The first rhino ancestors appeared on Earth during an epoch known as the Eocene, along with a number of other mammal species. As odd as it may seem, the earliest rhinos lacked horns.

• Rhino horns are made of keratin, the same material that makes up your hair and fingernails.  

• Some rhinos use their teeth – not their horns – for defense.

• White rhinos aren't white and black rhinos aren't black. 

• Rhinos are faster than they look! They can run up to 30 – 40 miles per hour.

• A rhino’s skin is not as tough as it looks, and can actually be quite sensitive to sunburns and insect bites. That’s why rhinos like rolling in the mud so much!

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Found Proof of Extraterrestrial Life. Or Did We?

Yet again, we are back to discussions about existence of extraterrestrial life and another instance of having located it. A recent study published in the Journal of Cosmology points towards the existence of life in space. A specially-designed balloon sent 27km into the stratosphere to monitor the Perseid meteor shower returned with small organisms on board that researchers believe could only have originated from space. Professor Milton Wainwright, from the University of Sheffield’s department of molecular biology and biotechnology, said the particles – a diatom fragment and some ‘unusual biological entities’ – were too large to be lifted from the Earth to such a height.

"The only known exception is by a violent volcanic eruption, none of which occurred within three years of the sampling trip," he said. Thus the paper argues for its incidence from space, with a probable origin in the watery environment of a comet.

The author advocates that there is no mechanism by which such a large sized particle can reach upto the stratosphere as it has a large residence time. Also, commercial airplanes do not fly at the height at which these were detected.  The only possible source from Earth is a volcano - which did not take place just before the sampling. However, I agree with Terry Kee, that it is too soon to conclude anything from that. The scientific community still needs a proof that the particle does not belong to Earth before they can start looking out for life in outer space.

Regarding conducting more experiments to analyse this situation, Prof Wainwright added, "The absolutely crucial experiment will come when we do what is called "isotope fractionation"."

Biochemical processes cause a fluctuation in the amount of carbon isotope ratios incorporated into a biological being. The difference between the true amount of carbon and the amount in the plant is known as isotope fractionation.

He explained, "We will take some of the samples which we have isolated from the stratosphere and introduce them into a complex machine – a button will be pressed. If the ratio of certain isotopes gives one number then our organisms are from Earth, if it gives another, then they are from space. The tension will obviously be almost impossible to live with!"

Let us wait for what the isotope fractionation brings to light and to what extent can we rely on its results! Till then, let's hope that life does exist in some other parallel universe! 

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Want to take a one-way trip to Mars?

The Red Planet has been the focus of discussions these days due to an initiative of one-way trip to the planet by an organisation, Mars One. Their mission is to establish a human settlement on mars within a decade. Between 24 and 40 candidates will be selected to participate in a seven-year training program that would start in 2015. The Martian prospectors would then be sent to the red planet in groups of four. The settlers, equipped with life support systems and Martian humvees, would construct lab facilities for conducting research and living quarters with food gardens. 

So who is game for the trip?  It’s a question that the Mars One project poses on its website:

You could say that most people would rather lose a leg than live the rest of their life on a cold, hostile planet, having said goodbye to friends and family forever, the best possible video call suffering from a seven minute delay—one way. However, there are individuals for whom traveling to Mars has been a dream for their entire life. They relish the challenge. Not unlike the ancient Chinese, Micronesians, and untold Africans, the Vikings and famed explorers of Old World Europe, who left everything behind to spend the majority of their lives at sea, a one-way mission to Mars is about exploring a new world and the opportunity to conduct the most revolutionary research ever conceived, to build a new home for humans on another planet.

Who all applied?

At the conclusion of a five-month-long first round of Mars One Astronaut Selection Programme, 2,02,586 people from around the world have applied out of which 20,747 are Indians! The United States tops the list with 47,654 applications, followed by India (20,747), China (13,176), Brazil (10,289), Britain (8,497), Canada (8,241), Russia (8,197), Mexico (7,464), Philippines (4,365) and Spain (3,722) on the top 10 list.

The Next Step:

Out of these 2 lakh participants, the Mars One selection committee will select prospective Martian settlers in three additional rounds spread across two years. By 2015, six-ten teams of four individuals will be selected for seven years of full-time training. In 2023, one of these teams will become the first humans ever to land on Mars and live there for the rest of their lives, the statement said. 

Mars One said each Round 1 applicant is now being screened by the selection committee, which is expected to take several months. Candidates selected to pass to the next round will be notified by the end of 2013.

The second round of selection will start in early 2014, where the candidates will be interviewed in person by the selection committee.

Who knows, by 2050, we might actually have established human settlements on Mars - Replica Earth maybe!

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Ozone Hole has Started Recovering but Climate Change in Antarctica Uncertain

We have been hearing and talking about ozone depletion and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) since the discovery of ozone hole in May 1985 - the research was published in the journal Nature (Link). Ozone hole isn't an actual hole - it is the annual thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica which is caused by stratospheric chlorine. However, a recent study has found that the ozone hole has started to recover and will recover completely between 2050 and 2100. 

What causes ozone hole?

The cause of the ozone holes is generally agreed to be CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) compounds which break down due to ultraviolet light and become free radicals containing chlorine high in the Earth's atmosphere. These radicals then break down the ozone catalytically. Ozone destruction due to chlorine radicals from CFCs can take place in the gas phase, but occurs particularly rapidly on the surface of polar stratospheric clouds (PSC), which form over the poles (particularly the south pole) during winter.

Although ozone, O3, is a minority constituent in the earth's atmosphere, it is responsible for most of the main absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the atmosphere. Correspondingly, a significant decrease in atmospheric ozone could be expected to give rise to significantly increased levels of UV near the surface

Montreal protocol

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol".

Ozone hole closing, but a slow process

The ozone hole is closing but it is a slow process and predictions are for it to recover between 2050 and 2100, a University of Canterbury expert says. Dr Adrian McDonald (Physics and Astronomy) says climate change in Antarctica really matters to New Zealand because it will cause ice to melt resulting in sea levels to rise.

"But, also the temperature difference between the poles and the equator controls wind patterns over NZ which could potentially mean increased-rainfall on the West Coast or dryer Canterbury Plains. The recent National science challenge aims to identify how climate is changing over Antarctica so that we can understand what our future might be in New Zealand."

Ironically, stratospheric ozone depletion may have indirectly protected Antarctica from the worst of greenhouse gas-related warming. "With the ozone recovery, the future of Antarctic climate is less certain, though the complex interactions in the atmosphere associated with climate change makes this region particularly hard to predict. The future recovery of the Antarctic ozone hole and increases in greenhouse gases will have significant impacts on the  circulation in the southern hemisphere."

Dr McDonald said ozone recovery should act to move the winds back towards the equator, but this may be counteracted by greenhouse gas forcings. The jet-stream positions are one of the main things that help control the width of tropical and polar weather belts. "The increasing ozone hole has until now acted to change the circulation of the Southern Hemisphere so that the strong winds linked to the jet streams have moved towards the pole."

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